{"id":36,"date":"2018-06-16T10:06:40","date_gmt":"2018-06-16T15:06:40","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/barneysplace.net\/site\/?page_id=36"},"modified":"2019-12-10T16:14:18","modified_gmt":"2019-12-10T21:14:18","slug":"article-2","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"http:\/\/barneysplace.net\/site\/welcome\/article-2\/","title":{"rendered":"Article 2"},"content":{"rendered":"

BELIEF: AN OWNER\u2019S MANUAL<\/strong>
ARTICLE 2:<\/strong>
A CONVENTION THAT INHIBITS UNDERSTANDING:<\/strong>
THE CUSTOMARY DEFINITION OF \u201cBELIEF\u201d<\/strong><\/p>\n

One habit of thought that inhibits attempts to understand belief is its customary definition. The word \u201cbelief,\u201d as widely used, refers to opinions or convictions held in the absence of rigorous proof (such as the conviction that the earth is flat, some political or social opinions, and most religious creeds). It is only inconsistently understood as referring to other kinds of assertions \u2013 like scientific observations and theories, on the one hand (Shermer, 2013) or faith, on the other (Smith, 1998).<\/p>\n

The customary definition\u2019s arbitrary and inconsistent boundary inhibits attempts to understand the full range of concepts that, when accepted, make us who we are. The question, \u201cIs a given concept best described as belief, knowledge, faith, opinion, or something else?\u201d is, I propose, a distraction from more important questions, such as, \u201cHow does affirming this concept shape a believer\u2019s perception, emotion, understanding, judgement, and\/or action?\u201d \u201cWhat characteristics of the concept in question encourage that result?\u201d \u201cWhat characteristics of the believer \u2013 both alone and in conjunction with the characteristics of the concept in question \u2013 do so?\u201d \u201cIs it possible to assess that result impartially?\u201d and \u201cIf so, how?\u201d<\/p>\n

The definition of \u201cbelief\u201d on this website was chosen to draw attention to those questions and to make them easier to answer. Thus, \u201cbelief,\u201d when used on this website, can refer to any concept that shapes the perception, emotion, understanding, judgement, and\/or action of those who affirm it. This definition is silent about the validity of the concept in question. While \u201cbelief,\u201d as that term is used here, can refer to opinions or convictions held in the absence of proof, it can also refer to convictions grounded in meticulous scientific observation or to rigorously tested theories.<\/p>\n

More simply, \u201cbelief,\u201d as used here, can refer to any assertion that (1) has one or more of the effects described in the above paragraph and that (2)\u00a0 can substitute for \u2018X\u2019 in the sentence, \u201cI believe that \u2018X.\u2019\u201d When used in this way, a belief can be about any subject. We may believe we are \u2013 or are not \u2013 worthy of love. We may believe that the universe was created 13.8 billion years ago by a \u201cBig Bang\u201d or a geologic wink ago by an act of God. We may believe that hard work is the key to success or that luck or privilege determine our fates; that Ford does \u2013 or does not \u2013 build better trucks than Chevy; that artificial intelligence will \u2013 or will not \u2013 become self-aware; or that loyalty to humanity should \u2013 or should not \u2013 trump loyalty to one\u2019s family, tribe, or nation.<\/p>\n

Many statements describing faith, facts, knowledge, opinions, hypotheses, theories, assumptions, etc. can (1) affect believers’ perception, emotion, understanding, judgement, and\/or action and (2) complete sentences beginning with the words, \u201cI believe that . . ..\u201d Thus, for our purposes, all such statements qualify as beliefs.<\/p>\n

Of course, not all beliefs are the same. Faith is a type of belief, but it is belief of a particular sort: it is belief in the absence of evidence. Knowledge is belief thought to be supported by undeniable facts. Hypotheses are beliefs held tentatively; and opinions are beliefs supported as strongly by passion as by evidence. All these species of belief (and all other assertions that both affect believers and satisfactorily complete sentences beginning with the words \u201cI believe that . . .\u201d) can be analyzed using the techniques I\u2019ll be describing.<\/p>\n

On the other hand, the term \u201cbelief,\u201d as used here, does not refer to what people believe in<\/em>. That\u2019s because the meaning of \u201cI believe in\u201d is vague. Before you can critically examine what you believe in, it\u2019s essential to spell out what you mean. Those who believe in a politician may believe that the politician will fulfill his or her campaign promises. But they may mean something quite different. They may, for example, believe in a politician because they believe that he or she is willing to do whatever is necessary (including misrepresenting his or her intentions) in the interest of benefiting those the believer cares about. Those who believe in God may believe that the divine rewards and punishments described in the holy books they favor will be realized. But they may mean something quite different. For example, those who say they believe in God may mean they believe that a Divine Being exists and cares about us, even though they believe that humanity\u2019s sacred texts misrepresent that Being\u2019s characteristics and desires.<\/p>\n

By allowing comparison of diverse beliefs, this website\u2019s definition makes it easier to discover systematic differences between them. The customary definition, which arbitrarily restricts the range of phenomena considered \u201cbeliefs,\u201d makes it impossible to see those differences. Imagine how unlikely Mendeleev\u2019s creation of the Periodic Table of the Elements would have been if he\u2019d assumed that substances differing in color, taste, or odor had no deeper relationships. And imagine how unlikely James Clerk Maxwell\u2019s discovery that electricity, magnetism, and light were manifestations of the same phenomenon would have been, had he been blinded by their palpable dissimilarities.<\/p>\n

Defining the range of ideas with which this website is concerned as \u201cbeliefs\u201d\u2014and insisting that the same procedures be employed when assessing, comparing, and discussing all such ideas \u2013 also thwarts specious attempts to defend beliefs by claiming that they belong to a protected class of ideas (e.g., by describing them as \u201cfaith \u201d or \u201cknowledge\u201d) as well as specious attempts to denigrate beliefs by alleging that they belong to a class of ideas that is unworthy of respect (e.g., by describing them as \u201csuperstitions\u201d). And, by doing so, it avoids conflicts over who has the authority to categorize.<\/p>\n

The absurdity of such conflicts was highlighted by the French Enlightenment philosopher Voltaire in his Philosophical Dictionary (1764), in which he wrote, \u201cIt is difficult to mark the limits of superstition. A Frenchman travelling in Italy finds almost everything superstitious, and is hardly mistaken. The Archbishop of Canterbury maintains that the Archbishop of Paris is superstitious; the Presbyterians make the same reproach against His Grace of Canterbury, and are in their turn treated as superstitious by the Quakers, who are the most superstitious of all in the eyes of other Christians.\u201d<\/p>\n

EXERCISE 2:<\/span><\/strong>
BECOMING MORE AWARE OF YOUR BELIEFS <\/span><\/strong>
AND CHOOSING A FEW TO EXAMINE<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n

The first step in deepening your understanding of how beliefs function and how they affect you is to identify a few \u201cpractice\u201d beliefs you\u2019re willing to examine. This exercise is designed to help you do just that. Be sure to write your beliefs down and to keep them handy. You\u2019ll be referring to them repeatedly as you progress. <\/span><\/p>\n

To help you acquaint yourself with this way of thinking about beliefs, be sure to phrase beliefs you\u2019re considering examining in the form \u201cI believe that \u2018X\u201d (where \u2018X\u2019 is your belief). You can, of course, add modifiers to such sentences. Thus, if you believe something reluctantly, you can say, \u201cI reluctantly believe that \u2018X\u2019,\u201d and if you\u2019re uncertain about something you can say, \u201cI tentatively believe that \u2018X\u2019.\u201d <\/span><\/p>\n

I suggest that you do this exercise with an eye toward identifying between two and five beliefs you find intriguing, are open to seeing differently, and are willing to discuss with trusted friends, advisors, or on-line forum members. At least one of those beliefs should be held in common with a political, religious, cultural, professional, familial or social group with which you identify. (If you are not aware of shared beliefs you are open to seeing differently, choose a shared belief that, while you’re committed to seeing it as you do, you find intriguing and are willing to discuss.) You can, of course, identify additional candidates for examination later. <\/span><\/p>\n

You may find worthy practice belief candidates among: <\/span><\/p>\n

\u2022 Beliefs you find painful. Since our subjective sense of certainty bears little relationship to the confidence our beliefs merit, feel free to consider beliefs you think of as unquestionable truths. And since many beliefs that would be destroyed by critical examination survive by prohibiting believers from appraising them, you may wish to consider defying such prohibitions by boldly including beliefs you\u2019ve been taught it\u2019s wrong to question. <\/span><\/p>\n

\u2022 Things you believe but wish you didn\u2019t. Again, don\u2019t hesitate to include beliefs on this list because you view them as unquestionably true or because you\u2019re concerned that examining them might be rude.<\/span><\/p>\n

\u2022 Beliefs you find intellectually troubling or confusing \u2013 beliefs that, in one way or another, don\u2019t seem to make sense. While many of these beliefs may seem trivial, they may be more influential than you realize. As Quine and Ullian pointed out in The Web of Belief (1970), almost every belief is held in place by other beliefs. A change in an apparently minor troubling, false or irrational belief may free related beliefs to change or even compel them to do so, creating cascades of associated corrections. And as Michael Shermer (2011) has argued, through such cascades, correction of even apparently inconsequential beliefs may have significant and surprising consequences.<\/span><\/p>\n

\u2022 Beliefs you rely on to help you achieve your most important goals. The following steps may help you identify some of those beliefs:<\/span><\/p>\n

o Identify one or two goals that are important to you. Goals, as I\u2019m using the term here, are imprecisely specified outcomes. Some examples of goals are achieving vocational success, having satisfying friendships, maintaining health or fitness, having happy intimate and familial relationships, finding joy in life, being a good person, having a rewarding religious or spiritual life, contributing to your community, or making the world a better place.<\/span><\/p>\n

o Identify (and consider examining) one or two beliefs that lead you to view these goals as important. Let\u2019s imagine that personal happiness is one of your goals. Among beliefs that might lead you to view that goal as important are, \u201cEveryone deserves to be happy\u201d or \u201cGod wants me to be happy.\u201d Beliefs that might lead you to view the goal of achieving justice as important are, \u201cIt is my religious duty to help God \u2018heal the world,\u2019\u201d or \u201cReal peace is impossible in the absence of real justice.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n

o Identify one or two objectives associated with each of the goals you\u2019ve identified. Objectives, as I\u2019m using the term here, are concrete (and, ideally, measurable) steps you can take to achieve your goals. Thus, if your goal were \u201cpersonal happiness,\u201d your objectives might include getting a satisfying job, avoiding debt, living in a low-crime neighborhood, belonging to a faith community, maintaining a positive attitude, and\/or having close friends.<\/span><\/p>\n

o Identify (and consider examining) one or two beliefs that lead you to think that achieving these objectives will help you achieve your goals. <\/span><\/p>\n

Remember that the beliefs you choose will provide a context in which to reexamine unquestioned assumptions, longstanding prejudices, and other change-resistant habits of thought. As such, exploring even the most benign belief is likely to be challenging. I therefore suggest that you avoid tackling highly sensitive issues on your first go-round. You can examine more challenging beliefs later. <\/span><\/p>\n

Other Beliefs You May Wish to Examine<\/span><\/p>\n

While I recommend that you use your own beliefs to develop your belief analysis skills, you may, at some later point, want to examine:<\/span><\/p>\n

\u2022 Beliefs that others are trying to \u201csell\u201d you. Most often, these are political beliefs, religious beliefs, or, in your personal life, beliefs about who you or others \u201creally\u201d are. If the technique employed to sell you a particular point of view is clumsy, it probably makes you uncomfortable. With luck, methodical examination will supply you with arguments you can use to discredit it. If the technique employed to sell you a particular point of view is sufficiently subtle (or sufficiently compatible with your other beliefs), you may think that you\u2019re simply being told the \u201ctruth.\u201d However, if those who present particular points of view discourage critical examination of their ideas, use personal attacks to discredit critical arguments or information, or dissuade you from learning about other perspectives, you may want to consider critically examining the positions they advocate.<\/span><\/p>\n

\u2022 Beliefs you suspect of harming friends, family members, or the broader community. Be warned, however, that analysis of such beliefs requires divining both the nature of the guidance believers rely on their beliefs to provide and the quality of guidance their beliefs actually provide as believers interpret them. Such analyses are invariably difficult and uncertain.<\/span><\/p>\n

A Final Note<\/span><\/p>\n

If a to-be-examined belief contains something like a \u201cshould\u201d or \u201cmust,\u201d you may want to consider rephrasing it as one or more \u201cif-then\u201d statements (perhaps accompanied by a statement of desirability). Thus, \u201cI should lose weight\u201d could be rephrased to \u201cIf I lose weight, my odds of heart disease and cancer will decrease,\u201d and \u201cReducing my odds of heart disease and cancer is a good thing.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n

Similarly, you may want to consider rephrasing beliefs about the past in a way that highlights their relevance to the present. For example, I believe that that Adolph Hitler\u2019s Nazi regime and its collaborators systematically murdered about six million Jews in death camps and extermination chambers. That belief is relevant to the present because it leads me to believe that Utopian political and religious movements that portray outsiders as inferior are capable of unspeakable evil.<\/span><\/p>\n

REFERENCES<\/strong><\/p>\n

Quine, W. V., & Ullian, J. S. (1970). The Web of Belief. New York: Random House.<\/p>\n

Shermer, M. (2011). The Believing Brain. New York: Henry Holt and Company.<\/p>\n

Shermer, M. (2013, October 1). Why We Should Choose Science over Beliefs: Ideology needs to give way. Retrieved from Scientific American : https:\/\/www.scientificamerican.com\/article\/why-we-should-choose-science-over-beliefs\/<\/p>\n

Smith, W. C. (1998). Faith and Belief: The Difference Between Them. Oxford, England: Oneworld Press.<\/p>\n\n\n

<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

BELIEF: AN OWNER\u2019S MANUALARTICLE 2:A CONVENTION THAT INHIBITS UNDERSTANDING:THE CUSTOMARY DEFINITION OF \u201cBELIEF\u201d One habit of thought that inhibits attempts to understand belief is its customary definition. The word \u201cbelief,\u201d as widely used, refers to opinions or convictions held in the absence of rigorous proof (such as the conviction that the earth is flat, some … Continue reading “Article 2”<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":5,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"_exactmetrics_skip_tracking":false,"_exactmetrics_sitenote_active":false,"_exactmetrics_sitenote_note":"","_exactmetrics_sitenote_category":0,"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-36","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"http:\/\/barneysplace.net\/site\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/36","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"http:\/\/barneysplace.net\/site\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"http:\/\/barneysplace.net\/site\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/barneysplace.net\/site\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/barneysplace.net\/site\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=36"}],"version-history":[{"count":20,"href":"http:\/\/barneysplace.net\/site\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/36\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":903,"href":"http:\/\/barneysplace.net\/site\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/36\/revisions\/903"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/barneysplace.net\/site\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/5"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"http:\/\/barneysplace.net\/site\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=36"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}